Poole on 2 Samuel 10:1-19: The Ammonite War

[circa 1037 BC]  Verse 1:[1]  And it came to pass after this, that the (1 Chron. 19:1, etc.) king of the children of Ammon died, and Hanun his son reigned in his stead.

[The king of the children of Ammon]  Nahash, undoubtedly the same, concerning whom 1 Samuel 11.  Perhaps he was a friend to David as an enemy of Saul (Sanchez, Martyr).

The king of the children of Ammon; Nahash, verse 2; probably the same whose army Saul defeated and destroyed, 1 Samuel 11, who out of enmity to Saul showed kindness to David, as it follows; hoping also by fomenting the differences between Saul and David, to make way for his future conquests.

Verse 2:[2]  Then said David, I will shew kindness unto Hanun the son of Nahash, as his father shewed kindness unto me.  And David sent to comfort him by the hand of his servants for his father.  And David's servants came into the land of the children of Ammon.

[I will do mercy, ‎חֶסֶד]  This term signifies every sorty of benignity (Grotius).

[As his father did]  What this mercy might have been is uncertain (Menochius).  The matter is not narrated in Scripture, but is had from tradition.  David fled from Achish king of God,[3] to Nahash, who bestowed many goods upon him (Lapide out of Jerome, similarly Sanchez, Lyra, Tostatus in Lapide, Tirinus).  Or the same was King of Ammon and of Moab (which sometimes happens [Martyr]).  But with the king of Moab David had left his father and mother[4] (Rabbis in Lyra).  But 2 Samuel 8:2 does not agree with this, if that war happened before this time (Sanchez).  Although the Hebrews were not obliged to prevent Ammon or Moab with benefits, Deuteronomy 23:6.  Yet, they, having been anticipated with benefits by them, are obliged to gratitude by the law of nature (Menochius, similarly Martyr).

Then said David, I will shew kindness, etc.:  Therefore there had hitherto been peace and friendship between David and him; and therefore the spoils of the children of Ammon are mentioned 2 Samuel 8:12, by way of anticipation, and with respect to the story here following.  As his father showed kindness unto me; which he might do either by offering him his help, if he needed it; or by supplying him with military or other provisions upon occasion, or many other ways.

[Consoling him, etc.]  The custom of the friends of Kings among themselves (Grotius).

[Over the death of his father, ‎אֶל־אָבִיו]  Over, or concerning, his father (Septuagint, Jonathan, Syriac, Arabic, Munster, Pagnine, Montanus, Junius and Tremellius, Castalio).  [The take אֶל/to for עַל/concerning:]  Because of the death of his father (Tigurinus, Stregelius).

Verse 3:[5]  And the princes of the children of Ammon said unto Hanun their lord, Thinkest thou that David doth (Heb. In thine eyes[6] doth David?) honour thy father, that he hath sent comforters unto thee? hath not David rather sent his servants unto thee, to search the city, and to spy it out, and to overthrow it?

[The princes said, etc.]  Nothing is so good that in the court it might not sometimes endure perverse interpreters (Grotius).

[Thinkest thou, etc.? בְּעֵינֶיךָ]  In thine eyes (Vatablus).  Understanding, doth it appear (Junius and Tremellius).  It is a Hebraism.  In thy belief and opinion; that is to say, Thinkest thou that David doth honor, etc.? (Mariana).

[So that he might search out, ‎בַּעֲב֞וּר חֲק֤וֹר]  Verbatim:  because of to search out (Montanus), or in passing (that is, while they pass through the city and region) to search it out (Malvenda).

[And reconnoiter, ‎וּלְרַגְּלָהּ]  And to reconnoiter (Junius and Tremellius) [similarly most interpreters]; so that he might scour it (Mariana, thus Montanus).

[And overthrow, ‎וּלְהָפְכָהּ]  And to overthrow it (Montanus, Junius and Tremellius, etc.); so that they might ponder it, that is, after the manner of those that, longing to see a beautiful thing, look into all parts (Mariana).  So that they might scrutinize it (Pagnine), understanding, diligently, from הָפַךְ, to overturn, to overthrow, and even to scrutinize:  because what things we scrutinize, we are wont to turn over onto each side (Vatablus).  But what moves them, that they might suspect those things of David?  Responses:  1.  A wicked mind, an ill spirit.  The Ammonites were always opposed ot the Israelites.  2.  A disturbed conscience:  They, being ill deserving, expect nothing good.  3.  Perhaps they had heard, in Deuteronomy 23:6, Seek not their good, etc.  That is to say, He feigns friendship; yet his law commands something quite different (Martyr).

To search the city, etc.:  To observe where the city is weakest, and may soonest be taken.  The ground of this suspicion was, partly, the conscience of their ill deserts and carriage towards the Israelites, whose quarrel David had espoused; partly, the opinion they had of David’s policy; and partly, the severity of God’s law, particularly against them, Deuteronomy 23:6, which might easily come to their ears.  And they knew David was a zealous asserter of God’s laws.

Verse 4:[7]  Wherefore Hanun took David’s servants, and shaved off the one half of their beards, and cut off their garments in the middle, (Is. 20:4; 47:2) even to their buttocks, and sent them away.

[And he shaved off the half part of their beards, ‎אֶת־חֲצִ֣י זְקָנָ֔ם]  Half of their beards.  They selected this indignity, because, just as luxuriant hair was attractive among almost all peoples, as Aristotle testifies, so baldness was an extreme embarrassment.  The Hebrews especially were extremely averse to the shaving of the head or beard; except in mourning, when custom was making it reputable (Tirinus nearly out of Sanchez).  They were wont in mourning to shave the head and beard, namely, both the Egyptians, Herodotus’[8] Histories 2, and the Assyrians, Strabo’s Geography 16 (Sanchez), and the Ammonites; to which rite the Hebrews were averse, because it was forbidden to them, Deuteronomy 14:1.  Therefore, while they were mourning the death of Nahash, they wanted contemptuously to force the legates, that they also might wear a shaved head and beard as at a funeral (Menochius out of Martyr).  Thus to pluck out the beard was among things especially insulting[9] (Grotius).  Thus Horace, Satires 1:3, impudent youths pluck out thy beard.  See what things are on Isaiah 50:6 (Sanchez).  They were treating them with contempt, if even one hair, in any case, was pulled from their beard with injury (Serarius).  The Lacedæmonians in Plutarch[10] in “Agesilaus”:[11]  To those fleeing from the battle array (says he) for the sake of shame the beard they are partly shaving, partly allowing to flow.  See Junius’[12] Concerning Hair[13] 2 (Malvenda out of Serarius).  This new spectacle of the shaving of half the beard was furnishing sport for the youth and others.  Moreover, in 1 Chronicles 19 these messengers are said to have been shorn; I think half of the head to have been also shorn to the skin (Sanchez).

[And he cut their garments short unto the midst of the buttocks, ‎ וַיִּכְרֹ֧ת אֶת־מַדְוֵיהֶ֛ם בַּחֵ֖צִי עַ֣ד שְׁתֽוֹתֵיהֶ֑ם]  And he cut their garments short through the middle, even unto their buttocks (Pagnine, Junius and Tremellius, etc.).  Unto the place of their confusion (Jonathan).  Thus he calls the buttocks (Munster).  Namely, from the middle to the bottom, so that those things that honestly wills to be covered might be exposed (Vatablus, similarly Menochius, Sanchez, Martyr):  so that their shame might appear before the courtiers and their fellow citizens, and their circumcision might be derided (Menochius).  For the Hebrews, with the exception of the priests, while they were performing sacred rites,[14] did not make use of breeches (Lapide out of Sanchez).  The word ‎מַדְוֵיהֶם, their garments, is derived from מָדַד, to measure; that is to say, a garment of measure (just as in 1 Chronicles 20:6, ‎אִ֣ישׁ מִדָּ֗ה, a man of measure, that is, of great measure, as Kimchi and Rabbi Salomon explain).  Thus it denotes a garment very great in extent, as that which, thrown over all others, encloses them in its embrace.  Therefore, we would rightly translate it, their cloaks.  Indeed, a cloak was a garment for travel and rain, as Lampridius[15] speaks in his “Life of Alexander Severus”.[16]  It is likely that they made the journey cloaked.  The Septuagint often translates it μανδύαν/ manduas, making use of that word, so that they might express its derivation from מַדְוִים/madvim (through common epenthesis of the נ/n); concerning this their custom see what things we have in Sacred Miscellany 2:10.  Otherwise μανδύας is properly the index of a war-garment (Fuller’s Sacred Miscellany 6:2).  [Others derive the word from a different source:]  מַדְוֵי properly signifies pollutions, even feminine monthly defilements, because they were cut off to that place, where generally by the purging of the belly uncleannesses are found.  See Gersonides, who by מַדְוֵי thinks loincloths to be understood, which are always found indecent.  Moreover, the root of this term is דָּוָה, to be ill, to repine (Munster).

Shaved off the one half of their beards; partly that he might compel them to bear a part in their mourning, and that in such a way as was usual with them, but forbidden to the Israelites, Leviticus 19:27; Deuteronomy 14:1; which probably was not unknown to them; and partly to fasten this as a reproach upon them, and to make them ridiculous and contemptible.  Compare Isaiah 20:4; 47:2; 50:6.  Even to their buttocks:  this was worse than the former, because the Israelites wore no breeches, and so their nakedness was hereby uncovered.  Compare Isaiah 20:4.

Verse 5:[17]  When they told it unto David, he sent to meet them, because the men were greatly ashamed:  and the king said, Tarry at Jericho until your beards be grown, and then return.

He sent to meet them; he sent them clothes and other necessaries.

[Tarry ye at Jericho]  It was the first city to those returning from the Ammonites (Martyr).

Tarry at Jericho; both because this was one of the first places which they came to in Canaan; and because it was now a very obscure village, and therefore fittest for them in their circumstances; for it was not built as a city till after this time, 1 Kings 16:34.

[Until your beards grow]  Question:  But why would they not shave the rest of their beards?  Response:  Because at that time the Jews were not accustomed to shave their beards, except in a time of mourning (Martyr, similarly Munster).  See Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 41:5; 48:37 (Sanchez).  Among the Romans to shave the beard appeared soft and effeminate (Martyr).

Until your beards be grown; for the want or loss of beards was esteemed a reproach among the Israelites.

Verse 6:[18]  And when the children of Ammon saw that they (Gen. 34:30; Ex. 5:21; 1 Sam. 13:4) stank before David, the children of Ammon sent and hired (2 Sam. 8:3, 5) the Syrians of Beth-rehob, and the Syrians of Zoba, twenty thousand footmen, and of king Maacah a thousand men, and of Ish-tob (or, the men of Tob,[19] see Judges 11:3, 5) twelve thousand men.

[Syrian Rehob]  That is, from that part of Syria, the capital of which was Rehob.  There are those that think Rehob to be the name of the chief province of the father of Hadadezer, who was the son of Rehob, 2 Samuel 8:3, 12:  but it stands in opposition, that there that Hadadezer the son of Rehob is called King of Zobah; since here Syrian Zobah and Syrian Rehob are distinguished (Menochius).  Hebrew:  Syria of the house of Rehob[20] (Malvenda).  These were subordinate to Hadadezer.  See on Numbers 13:21; 1 Samuel 14:47 (Junius).

Beth-rehob, near Hamath, Numbers 13:21.

[And Syrian Zoba]  See 2 Samuel 8:3 (Menochius); 1 Samuel 14:47 (Malvenda).

Zoba; of which see 1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:3.

[And from king Maacah]  Bordering Gilead in Trachonitis:  see Deuteronomy 3:14 (Junius and Tremellius); Genesis 22:24 (Malvenda).

Of king Maacah, that is, of that part of Syria which was under king Maacah; for Syria was a large country, and there were divers kings in the several parts of it.  This part was near Gilead.  See Deuteronomy 3:14.

[And from Ish-tob (thus most interpreters)]  But others:  and from the men of Tob (Junius and Tremellius, Dutch).  There is a region called Tob, to which Jephthah fled (Mariana out of Vatablus).

Of Ish-tob; or, of the men of Tob, the country where Jephthah dwelt, Judges 11:3.  Besides these, they hired others out of Aram-naharaim, or Mesopotamia, as appears from 1 Chronicles 19:6; Ps 60 title.  And all these were forward enough to combine against David, both to revenge their former losses and reproaches, and to give check to his growing greatness.

Verse 7:[21]  And when David heard of it, he sent Joab, and all the host of (2 Sam. 23:8) the mighty men.

[He sent Joab, etc.]  Not thinking to wait, while those first invade his land (Martyr).  On account of legates abusively treated, the Romans undertook wars against the Tarentini,[22] Illyrians, Ligurians,[23] Senones,[24] Issii,[25] and the Corinthians, as we noted in Concerning the Law of War and Peace 2:18 (Grotius).

He sent, etc.:  Choosing wisely to carry the war into their country, rather than to expect it in his own.

Verse 8:[26]  And the children of Ammon came out, and put the battle in array at the entering in of the gate:  and (2 Sam. 10:6) the Syrians of Zoba, and of Rehob, and Ish-tob, and Maacah, were by themselves in the field.

[Before the entrance of the gate]  Either Rabbah, which is the capital of the Ammonites (Menochius).  Or Medeba, or Medaba, where the battle was joined, 1 Chronicles 19:7, 9 (Malvenda out of Junius, Tirinus).  Concerning which see Numbers 21:30.  It was on the border of the Ammonites (Junius).

Of the gate, to wit, of Medeba, as it is expressed, 1 Chronicles 19:7, which was a frontier city.  See Numbers 21:30.  This place they chose for the fight, that they might both defend that city and their country, whereof that was the entrance, and, if need were, might retreat into it.

[But the Syrians, etc., were apart in the field]  So that, if the Israelites had made an assault upon the Ammonites, they might intercept them in the midst (Martyr, similarly Tirinus).  They positioned the Syrians outside of the city, because they saw that it was dangerous to receive mercenary soldiers into the city (Martyr).

The Syrians…were by themselves in the field; that by their numerous forces they might fall upon the Israelites on the other side.

Verse 9:[27]  When Joab saw that the front of the battle was against him before and behind, he chose of all the choice men of Israel, and put them in array against the Syrians…

[Joab, seeing, etc.]  Joab first saw that the cause was good:  then he trusts in God:  third, he uses prudence (Martyr).

[That the battle was prepared against him, ‎כִּֽי־הָיְתָ֤ה אֵלָיו֙ פְּנֵ֣י הַמִּלְחָמָ֔ה]  That the face of the war was against him.  The verb ‎הָיְתָה [28] agrees with the latter substantive, namely, ‎הַמִּלְחָמָה, the battle,[29] although it is bound to the prior ‎פְּנֵי/ faces;[30] thus in Job 15:20, ‎וּמִסְפַּ֥ר שָׁ֜נִ֗ים נִצְפְּנ֥וּ, and the number of years are hidden, that is, is hidden (Glassius’ “Grammar” 688).

Against the Syrians:  Which were the most valuable valiant and expert soldiers.

Verse 10:[31]  And the rest of the people he delivered into the hand of Abishai his brother, that he might put them in array against the children of Ammon.

Verse 11:[32]  And he said, If the Syrians be too strong for me, then thou shalt help me:  but if the children of Ammon be too strong for thee, then I will come and help thee.

Verse 12:[33]  (Deut. 31:6) Be of good courage, and let us (1 Sam. 4:9; 1 Cor. 16:13) play the men for our people, and for the cities of our God:  and (1 Sam. 3:18) the LORD do that which seemeth him good.

[For our people, etc.]   The goal of the war is, that injuries might be warded off, not inflicted (Martyr).

For our people; for the preservation of ourselves and all our brethren from that utter ruin which our enemies design for us.  Our war is not vainly undertaken to enlarge our empire or glory, but for our own just and necessary defence; and therefore we may hope for God’s blessing and assistance in it.  For the cities of our God; which are devoted to his worship and service, and therefore he will plead their cause against his enemies.  The Lord do that which seemeth him good; let us do our parts, and quietly refer ourselves and the event to God’s good pleasure, which we have no reason to distrust.

Verse 13:[34]  And Joab drew nigh, and the people that were with him, unto the battle against the Syrians:  and they fled before him.

[They fled from his face]  As those are wont to do, who fight only for pay with no regard to the cause.  To those gathered without good reason there is neither glory in victory, nor disgrace in flight, says Tacitus in Histories 2:  wherefore Joab prudently, before the armies of the enemies were united, that those foreign and hired for pay were to be attacked first (Grotius).

Joab drew nigh, etc.:  He prudently falls upon them first, because they were but mercenaries, and not concerned so much in the success as the Ammonites were, all whose interest lay at stake; and therefore not likely to venture too far in their defence.

Verse 14:[35]  And when the children of Ammon saw that the Syrians were fled, then fled they also before Abishai, and entered into the city.  So Joab returned from the children of Ammon, and came to Jerusalem.

[Seeing that the Syrians had fled]  In whose might and multitude they had placed their hope (Menochius).

That the Syrians were fled; in whose numbers and prowess they had the most confidence.  Joab returned from the children of Ammon; not judging it convenient or safe to pursue them, because the forces were not utterly ruined, but only dispersed and put to flight, and so might easily rally together.

[circa 1036 BC]  Verse 15:[36]  And when the Syrians saw that they were smitten before Israel, they gathered themselves together.

[Therefore, the Syrians, seeing, etc.]  Fearing that, as it is wont to be done, David would require the punishment due to his enemies from their helper, which also was done.  See 2 Samuel 19 (Grotius).

[They were gathered]  The very ones that had fled, wanting to wipe away the stain of cowardice (Menochius).

They gathered themselves together:  Partly, to wipe out the stain of cowardice which they had now contracted; partly, to prevent that vengeance which they supposed David would execute upon them for their last attempt; and partly, to shake off the yoke that David had lately put upon them.

Verse 16:[37]  And Hadarezer sent, and brought out the Syrians that were beyond the river (that is, Euphrates):  and they came to Helam; and Shobach (or, Shophach, 1 Chron. 19:16[38]) the captain of the host of Hadarezer went before them.

[And he sent, etc.]  Understanding, messengers; that is, by messengers sent he brought out the Syrians that were dwelling across the Euphrates (Vatablus).  Now, he drew them out, not by command, as subjects; but with pay, as mercenaries (Josephus in Menochius).

Hadarezer; the same with Hadadezer, 2 Samuel 8:3.  The Syrians that were beyond the river; who having engaged themselves in the former expedition, as was noted before, were now obliged to proceed in their own defence, being also persuaded and hired to this second expedition, 2 Samuel 10:19.  Shobach, or Shophach, 1 Chronicles 19:16.

Verse 17:[39]  And when it was told David, he gathered all Israel together, and passed over Jordan, and came to Helam.  And the Syrians set themselves in array against David, and fought with him.

All Israel, that is, the chosen and valiant men picked out of all Israel.

[And he came to Helam]  A city of the Syrians (Tostatus in Menochius).  Others think that it was the place where the Transjordanian Israelites had gathered, who, as neighbors to the Ammonites, were ever ready in arms, as necessity dictated (Menochius).  Perhaps it was that town, which Ptolemy[40] calls Alamtha, near Arabian Trachonitis (Junius).

Verse 18:[41]  And the Syrians fled before Israel; and David slew the men of seven hundred chariots of the Syrians, and forty thousand horsemen (1 Chron. 19:18, footmen), and smote Shobach the captain of their host, who died there.

[David killed seven hundred chariots]  But in 1 Chronicles 19:18[42] it is seven thousand chariots.  What is to be said?  Responses:  1.  An error of number was here committed by the copyists; it is correct in 1 Chronicles (Grotius).  2.  Here are numbered only the most noble and principal chariots:  but in 1 Chronicles all the chariots, even the common ones (Martyr, Dieu, Abarbanel in Buxtorf).  3.  Chariots here are put for the soldiers that were carried by them (Vatablus, Sanchez, Lapide, Menochius, Tirinus, Junius, Piscator, Malvenda):  by a metonymy, which in the thing containing understands the thing contained (Sanchez, Tirinus).  The horsemen of seven hundred chariots (Junius and Tremellius), that is, seven hundred divisions of ten horsemen, who were carried by the chariots, as in 2 Samuel 8:4 (Junius, Piscator).  For, in the individual chariots ten soldiers were fighting (Menochius).  These chariots are said to have been killed; but soldiers are killed, not chariots (Lapide).

The men of seven hundred chariots; Hebrew, seven hundred chariots, that is, the men belonging to them, that fought in or with them; as plainly appears, 1.  Because the men only, and not the chariots, were capable of being killed, as these are said to have been.  2.  Because it is thus explained in the Book of Chronicles, which was written after this book, for this end, to explain what was dark or doubtful, and to supply what was omitted here; where, instead of these words, are seven thousand men which fought in chariots, 1 Chronicles 19:18.  And this is a very common metonymy; of which see above, 2 Samuel 8:4, and the notes on 1 Samuel 13:5.  Although there might be seven thousand chariots in all, whereof seven hundred where chosen ones; according to the distinction made Exodus 14:7.

[And forty thousand horsemen]  But in 1 Chronicles 19:18 it is forty thousand footmen.  How are these things to be reconciled with each other?  Responses:  1.  For my part, I do not see how.  An error appears to be underneath (Piscator).  2.  Others maintain that there is a trajection, and thus order the words, he killed of seven hundred chariots the horsemen, and forty thousand of footmen, which they understand out of 1 Chronicles 19 (certain interpreters in Malvenda, Junius and Tremellius).  3.  Both are true, that he killed forty thousand both of horsemen, as it is said here; and of footmen, as it is found in 1 Chronicles (Sanchez, Menochius, Tirinus, Lapide).  In the Books of Chronicles those things that are omitted in the Books of Kings are related; or those things that are set forth there more obscurely are explained (Sanchez).  4.  Others think that they were footmen, but were called horsemen on account of their fortitude; just as today anyone vigorous is called a cavalier.  5.  Others think that these forty thousand were horsemen; but, when the chariots were prostrated and in danger, they descended from their horses, and fought as footmen (certain interpreters in Buxtorf’s Vindication 2:420).  6.  Under horsemen I understand the footmen customarily mixed with them; for which reason here they are called horsemen, there footmen:  that is, forty thousand men, both horsemen, and footmen (Dieu).

Forty thousand horsemen; for which in 1 Chronicles 19:18, is forty thousand footmen; which may be reconciled divers ways.  1.  Both these may be true, that he slew forty thousand horsemen, which being the most considerable part and strength of the army, it might seem sufficient to name them, and every one could easily understand that the footmen in that case were certainly cut off; and that he slew also forty thousand footmen, as is said in 1 Chronicles, where he mentions them only, because they were omitted in 2 Samuel, and the horsemen being expressed here, it was needless to repeat them in 1 Chronicles.  2.  The horsemen may be here called footmen, in opposition to those that fought in chariots; because they sometimes fought on horseback, and sometimes came down from their horses, and fought on foot, when the place of the battle was more commodious for footmen than for horsemen; which it is not improbable was their case here; for David being a soldier of great prudence and experience, and understanding the great numbers of the Syrian horsemen, whereas the Israelites had but very few, Deuteronomy 17:16, would doubtless endeavour to choose a place as inconvenient for their horsemen as he could.  3.  Peradventure the Syrians designed to bring the war into David’s country, and therefore hastened their march, and for that end put their footmen on horseback, (as hath been frequently done in like cases,) who, when they came to the place of battle, came down from their horses, and fought on foot.  So there is no need of acknowledging an error of the scribe in the sacred text; which yet if it were granted in such historical passages of no moment to the doctrine of faith and good life, it would not shake the foundation of our faith in matters of great importance, which it might reasonably be presumed the providence of God would more watchfully preserve from all depravation or corruption.

[And Shobach, ‎שׁוֹבַךְ]  But in 1 Chronicles 19:18 it is ‎שׁוֹפַךְ/Shophach:  but whether more rightly I venture not to say (Grotius).

Verse 19:[43]  And when all the kings that were servants to Hadarezer saw that they were smitten before Israel, they made peace with Israel, and (2 Sam. 8:6) served them.  So the Syrians feared to help the children of Ammon any more.

The kings that were servants to Hadarezer, to wit, for that time, or in that expedition to which he hired them.

[And they served them]  They were made tributaries (Grotius).

[1] Hebrew:  ‎וַֽיְהִי֙ אַֽחֲרֵי־כֵ֔ן וַיָּ֕מָת מֶ֖לֶךְ בְּנֵ֣י עַמּ֑וֹן וַיִּמְלֹ֛ךְ חָנ֥וּן בְּנ֖וֹ תַּחְתָּֽיו׃

[2] Hebrew:  ‎וַיֹּ֙אמֶר דָּוִ֜ד אֶעֱשֶׂה־חֶ֣סֶד׀ עִם־חָנ֣וּן בֶּן־נָחָ֗שׁ כַּאֲשֶׁר֩ עָשָׂ֙ה אָבִ֤יו עִמָּדִי֙ חֶ֔סֶד וַיִּשְׁלַ֙ח דָּוִ֧ד לְנַחֲמ֛וֹ בְּיַד־עֲבָדָ֖יו אֶל־אָבִ֑יו וַיָּבֹ֙אוּ֙ עַבְדֵ֣י דָוִ֔ד אֶ֖רֶץ בְּנֵ֥י עַמּֽוֹן׃

[3] 1 Samuel 21; 27-29.

[4] 1 Samuel 22:3, 4.

[5] Hebrew: וַיֹּאמְרוּ֩ שָׂרֵ֙י בְנֵֽי־עַמּ֜וֹן אֶל־חָנ֣וּן אֲדֹֽנֵיהֶ֗ם הַֽמְכַבֵּ֙ד דָּוִ֤ד אֶת־אָבִ֙יךָ֙ בְּעֵינֶ֔יךָ כִּֽי־שָׁלַ֥ח לְךָ֖ מְנַֽחֲמִ֑ים הֲ֠לוֹא בַּעֲב֞וּר חֲק֤וֹר אֶת־הָעִיר֙ וּלְרַגְּלָ֣הּ וּלְהָפְכָ֔הּ שָׁלַ֥ח דָּוִ֛ד אֶת־עֲבָדָ֖יו אֵלֶֽיךָ׃

[6] Hebrew:  ‎בְּעֵינֶיךָ.

[7] Hebrew:  ‎וַיִּקַּ֙ח חָנ֜וּן אֶת־עַבְדֵ֣י דָוִ֗ד וַיְגַלַּח֙ אֶת־חֲצִ֣י זְקָנָ֔ם וַיִּכְרֹ֧ת אֶת־מַדְוֵיהֶ֛ם בַּחֵ֖צִי עַ֣ד שְׁתֽוֹתֵיהֶ֑ם וַֽיְשַׁלְּחֵֽם׃

[8] Herodotus (c. 484-c. 425) was a Greek historian, sometimes called “The Father of History”.

[9] See Nehemiah 13:25; Isaiah 50:6.

[10] Mestrius Plutarchus (c. 46-127) was a Greek historian.

[11] Agesilaus II was King of Spart from circa 400 to 360 BC, during the period of Spartan ascendency after the Peloponnesian War.  Plutarch included a biography of him in his Parallel Lives.

[12] Hadrianus Junius (1511-1575) was a Dutch physician, antiquarian, philologist, educator, and classical scholar.

[13] De Coma.

[14] Exodus 28:42; Leviticus 6:10; 16:4; Ezekiel 44:18.

[15] Ælius Lampridius (fourth century) was a Roman historian.

[16] Historia Augusta.

[17] Hebrew: וַיַּגִּ֤דוּ לְדָוִד֙ וַיִּשְׁלַ֣ח לִקְרָאתָ֔ם כִּֽי־הָי֥וּ הָאֲנָשִׁ֖ים נִכְלָמִ֣ים מְאֹ֑ד וַיֹּ֤אמֶר הַמֶּ֙לֶךְ֙ שְׁב֣וּ בִֽירֵח֔וֹ עַד־יְצַמַּ֥ח זְקַנְכֶ֖ם וְשַׁבְתֶּֽם׃

[18] Hebrew: וַיִּרְאוּ֙ בְּנֵ֣י עַמּ֔וֹן כִּ֥י נִבְאֲשׁ֖וּ בְּדָוִ֑ד וַיִּשְׁלְח֣וּ בְנֵֽי־עַמּ֡וֹן וַיִּשְׂכְּרוּ֩ אֶת־אֲרַ֙ם בֵּית־רְח֜וֹב וְאֶת־אֲרַ֣ם צוֹבָ֗א עֶשְׂרִ֥ים אֶ֙לֶף֙ רַגְלִ֔י וְאֶת־מֶ֤לֶךְ מַֽעֲכָה֙ אֶ֣לֶף אִ֔ישׁ וְאִ֣ישׁ ט֔וֹב שְׁנֵים־עָשָׂ֥ר אֶ֖לֶף אִֽישׁ׃

[19] Hebrew:  ‎וְאִ֣ישׁ ט֔וֹב.

[20] Hebrew:  ‎אֲרַ֙ם בֵּית־רְח֜וֹב.

[21] Hebrew:  ‎וַיִּשְׁמַ֖ע דָּוִ֑ד וַיִּשְׁלַח֙ אֶת־יוֹאָ֔ב וְאֵ֥ת כָּל־הַצָּבָ֖א הַגִּבֹּרִֽים׃

[22] Tarentum was in southern Italy.

[23] Liguria was in north-western Italy.

[24] The Senones were a Gallic tribe; a portion of the tribe settled in the Umbrian region of Italy.

[25] Issus was a plain in Cilicia.

[26] Hebrew:  ‎וַיֵּֽצְאוּ֙ בְּנֵ֣י עַמּ֔וֹן וַיַּעַרְכ֥וּ מִלְחָמָ֖ה פֶּ֣תַח הַשָּׁ֑עַר וַאֲרַ֙ם צוֹבָ֤א וּרְחוֹב֙ וְאִֽישׁ־ט֣וֹב וּמַֽעֲכָ֔ה לְבַדָּ֖ם בַּשָּׂדֶֽה׃

[27] Hebrew: וַיַּ֣רְא יוֹאָ֗ב כִּֽי־הָיְתָ֤ה אֵלָיו֙ פְּנֵ֣י הַמִּלְחָמָ֔ה מִפָּנִ֖ים וּמֵֽאָח֑וֹר וַיִּבְחַ֗ר מִכֹּל֙ בְּחוּרֵ֣י בְּיִשְׂרָָאֵ֔ל וַֽיַּעֲרֹ֖ךְ לִקְרַ֥את אֲרָֽם׃

[28] Singular.

[29] Singular.

[30] Plural.

[31] Hebrew:  ‎וְאֵת֙ יֶ֣תֶר הָעָ֔ם נָתַ֕ן בְּיַ֖ד אַבְשַׁ֣י אָחִ֑יו וַֽיַּעֲרֹ֕ךְ לִקְרַ֖את בְּנֵ֥י עַמּֽוֹן׃

[32] Hebrew:  ‎וַיֹּ֗אמֶר אִם־תֶּחֱזַ֤ק אֲרָם֙ מִמֶּ֔נִּי וְהָיִ֥תָה לִּ֖י לִֽישׁוּעָ֑ה וְאִם־בְּנֵ֤י עַמּוֹן֙ יֶחֱזְק֣וּ מִמְּךָ֔ וְהָלַכְתִּ֖י לְהוֹשִׁ֥יעַֽ לָֽךְ׃

[33] Hebrew:  ‎חֲזַ֤ק וְנִתְחַזַּק֙ בְּעַד־עַמֵּ֔נוּ וּבְעַ֖ד עָרֵ֣י אֱלֹהֵ֑ינוּ וַֽיהוָ֔ה יַעֲשֶׂ֥ה הַטּ֖וֹב בְּעֵינָֽיו׃

[34] Hebrew:  ‎וַיִּגַּ֣שׁ יוֹאָ֗ב וְהָעָם֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר עִמּ֔וֹ לַמִּלְחָמָ֖ה בַּֽאֲרָ֑ם וַיָּנֻ֖סוּ מִפָּנָֽיו׃

[35] Hebrew:  וּבְנֵ֙י עַמּ֤וֹן רָאוּ֙ כִּי־נָ֣ס אֲרָ֔ם וַיָּנֻ֙סוּ֙ מִפְּנֵ֣י אֲבִישַׁ֔י וַיָּבֹ֖אוּ הָעִ֑יר וַיָּ֣שָׁב יוֹאָ֗ב מֵעַל֙ בְּנֵ֣י עַמּ֔וֹן וַיָּבֹ֖א יְרוּשָׁלִָֽם׃

[36] Hebrew:  ‎וַיַּ֣רְא אֲרָ֔ם כִּ֥י נִגַּ֖ף לִפְנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל וַיֵּאָסְפ֖וּ יָֽחַד׃

[37] Hebrew:  ‎ויִּשְׁלַ֣ח הֲדַדְעֶ֗זֶר וַיֹּצֵ֤א אֶת־אֲרָם֙ אֲשֶׁר֙ מֵעֵ֣בֶר הַנָּהָ֔ר וַיָּבֹ֖אוּ חֵילָ֑ם וְשׁוֹבַ֛ךְ שַׂר־צְבָ֥א הֲדַדְעֶ֖זֶר לִפְנֵיהֶֽם׃

[38] 1 Chronicles 19:16:  “And when the Syrians saw that they were put to the worse before Israel, they sent messengers, and drew forth the Syrians that were beyond the river:  and Shophach (‎וְשׁוֹפַךְ) the captain of the host of Hadarezer went before them.”

[39] Hebrew: וַיֻּגַּ֣ד לְדָוִ֗ד ס וַיֶּאֱסֹ֤ף אֶת־כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ וַיַּעֲבֹ֣ר אֶת־הַיַּרְדֵּ֔ן וַיָּבֹ֖א חֵלָ֑אמָה וַיַּעַרְכ֤וּ אֲרָם֙ לִקְרַ֣את דָּוִ֔ד וַיִּלָּחֲמ֖וּ עִמּֽוֹ׃

[40] Claudius Ptolemæus (c. 90-c. 168), of Roman Alexandria, was a scientist and thinker of great profundity; and his contribution to the fields of geography and astronomy in the Western world has been enormous.

[41] Hebrew: וַיָּ֣נָס אֲרָם֘ מִפְּנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵל֒ וַיַּהֲרֹ֙ג דָּוִ֜ד מֵאֲרָ֗ם שְׁבַ֤ע מֵאוֹת֙ רֶ֔כֶב וְאַרְבָּעִ֥ים אֶ֖לֶף פָּרָשִׁ֑ים וְאֵ֙ת שׁוֹבַ֧ךְ שַׂר־צְבָא֛וֹ הִכָּ֖ה וַיָּ֥מָת שָֽׁם׃

[42] 1 Chronicles 19:18:  “But the Syrians fled before Israel; and David slew of the Syrians seven thousand men which fought in chariots, and forty thousand footmen, and killed Shophach the captain of the host (‎וַיָּ֣נָס אֲרָם֘ מִלִּפְנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵל֒ וַיַּהֲרֹ֙ג דָּוִ֜יד מֵאֲרָ֗ם שִׁבְעַ֤ת אֲלָפִים֙ רֶ֔כֶב וְאַרְבָּעִ֥ים אֶ֖לֶף אִ֣ישׁ רַגְלִ֑י וְאֵ֛ת שׁוֹפַ֥ךְ שַֽׂר־הַצָּבָ֖א הֵמִֽית׃).”

[43] Hebrew: וַיִּרְא֙וּ כָֽל־הַמְּלָכִ֜ים עַבְדֵ֣י הֲדַדְעֶ֗זֶר כִּ֤י נִגְּפוּ֙ לִפְנֵ֣י יִשְׂרָאֵ֔ל וַיַּשְׁלִ֥מוּ אֶת־יִשְׂרָאֵ֖ל וַיַּֽעַבְד֑וּם וַיִּֽרְא֣וּ אֲרָ֔ם לְהוֹשִׁ֥יעַ ע֖וֹד אֶת־בְּנֵ֥י עַמּֽוֹן׃ פ